Water Quality Pollution

Water Quality Pollution TOPIC: WATER QUALITY REPORT Question one: Potential sources of pollution and their potential impact on human health and environment. The Bevern River in Wales has for many years been clean and free from pollution. However in the recent years it have faced different threats of pollution that have posed risk to the water environment and the existence of the several fish species living in it. The major potential source of pollution to the Bevern stream is the sewage system that runs along the Bevern stream the inspection chambers between the Barcombe and the Barcombe sewage treatment work overflow sometimes and the waste are directed to the stream. The overflow has made the levels of the E. coli to rise above the normal required amount in such a stream. The feaces also contain a lot of ammonia and has therefore increased the amount of the dissolved Nitrogen and phosphates. The surrounding that is also polluted with the sewage wastes has also raised a concern over pollution in the stream. The waste is washed down the stream during rain season and the problem of pollution therefore continues. In September 2007, the problem of serious pollution was encountered in the Bevern stream when the raw sewage burst into the stream. The raw sewage has more health and environmental effects than the treated sewage and during the leak of the raw wastes into the river; the water quality was adversely affected. (Lorna, and Jamie, 2001) The dangers that are associated with the problem of pollution are serious. The pollutant cause the rise of the E. coli and amount of the dissolved phosphates and Nitrates that also reduce the amount of Dissolved Oxygen in the water that can affect the life of the species living in the waters that cannot cope with low oxygen. The problem of overflow of the Inspection chamber was solved but the danger still remains as the as the walls of the river near the chamber are weak and with the slightest rain, they can still burst and overflow. Bevern stream drains its water to Sussex River Ouse whose tributaries are at risk from the pollution of the several sewage treatment plants that drain the sewage waste to these streams. As a result, the Sussex river remain threatened to pollution from these treatment plants that have very low standards according to the river Sussex Conservation Society and other societies. The often breakdown of the infrastructure around the Bevern stream is also a potential source of water pollution in the stream. The presence of high levels of E. coli and low dissolved oxygen can lead to the death of the fish species in the water. The pollution of the water with Nitrates and Phosphates is also dangerous as it can lead to the growth of harmful water plants that can cause effect to the vertebrates in the river and can also reduce the rate of floe of the river that can also affect the amount of Dissolved Oxygen. The solid wastes from Wales community neighboring the stream also block the flow of water in the Bevern stream, the solid wastes also increase sediments in the river that affect the movement of the vertebrates hence lack food and die. They also destroy the breeding sites which has adversely reduced the number of species in the water. The consumption of this polluted water can be dangerous to human health as they cause Typhoid from the E. Coli bacteria present in the water from the sewage wastes. Question Two: The limitations to obtaining data on water quality that accurately reflects the changing conditions in the stream. The collection of data on the quality of water in Bevern stream is not efficient and reliable. The problem of collecting data is associated with the changing in the fauna and flora in the stream, at the mouth of the where the tributary Bevern joins River Sussex, there are several species of vertebrates which are as a result of low level of pollution at the site while in the lower mainstream of the river, there are less species as they die from the immediate sewage pollution from the Barcombe sewage treatment section. If samples of the water are taken from these two points of the stream, there will be a great difference in the results that cannot be relied for the real water quality changes currently experienced in the river. Several snail species that are not capable of surviving in low dissolved Oxygen die at some point of the stream as well as nymph. (Duncan, and Horan, 2003) This is from the increase in the level of the phosphates and ammonia level in the water. There is a greater difference in the quality of water at different points of the river, the data collected therefore should not be limited to few samples and should include several samples from different points. The analysis carried out on the water should be used to look for an average so that the water quality results can be compared to the European Community Fresh Water Fish Directive. The other limitation that can also emerge from the data is from the capability of different vertebrates and other species to survive in different water quality. Some can survive in low dissolved Oxygen while some like fish cannot. The PH of the water may also not be fit for some animal species but can favor some. Therefore it is very unreliable to collect data at the stream based on some factors. The stream should be upgraded to the salmonid water quality standards which are rigorous than the EC standards. The Bevern water quality deteriorates downstream as a result of the treated sewage discharge into the stream Dichling which is closer to the sewage discharge. The effect on the quality of water also depends on the season, for example during the dry summer seasons; the stream water quality is very poor as compare to the winter. The standards are compared for two fish species, the Salmonid and the Cyprinid in which the former is delicate and need extremely high quality water. (Lorna, and Jamie, 2001) Question Three: Outline what the results for nutrient levels (e.g., ammonia, nitrate and phosphates) tell you about the trophic status of the stream. Trophic status of a water body is defined in relation to the concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients present in the water as well as the algae. These two nutrients are the key determinants of the trophic status which is the biological fertility or productivity of the water body. The levels of the three nutrients in the Bevern stream are significantly higher than the standard EC Fisheries directives for both the Salmonid and Cyprinid species. (Crompton, 2002) This indicates that the stream is relatively productive which is the reason why the stream has a lot of plants growing in it as well as algae in the water. These plants provide food for the different vertebrates in the water that result to breeding and increase in the number of species in the stream. The nymph in the stream eats the algae. The fish feed on these small invertebrates and from their waste they add the amount of Ammonia and phosphates in the water. The balance between the levels of these nutrients is maint ained through the different trophic levels. Treated sewage discharge from Barcombe treatment section into the stream help to increase the levels of these nutrients. The high level of Dissolved Oxygen is also favorable for the increment of the fertility of the stream that increases productivity. The DO in the stream is very high as compared to the set EC standards for dissolved oxygen as seen from the table above. Oxygen favors the development of algae and other water plants. The availability of these plants is a ready source of food to some species. This result to the increase in number of this species which form food for the fish and other vertebrates. The trophic status of the Bevern stream is reasonably high and the future increase in the number of species is possible as long as pollution is controlled. Bavern stream fresh water aquatic environment studies showed that at the mouth of river Sussex, there are several species of fish that exist as a result of the trophic status in the stream. The problem of pollution in the stream has been sought by the Environmental Agency and this has assisted in the improvement and maintenance of good trophic status in the stream. Question Four: What do the bacteriological data tell you about levels and sources of faecal pollution in the Bevern stream? The level of the Escherichia coli is 64000 per 100ml and the Entercoli is 32000 per 100ml. These values are very high in the stream which shows that there is faecal pollution in the stream. The faecal pollution is from the sewage discharge from the treatment works along the stream. The are also possibilities of untreated sewage discharge into the stream that has caused in the high level of the Enterococci which is a colony of the intestinal coli in water. The levels are triggered by the leakage of the September incident where the sewage over flew into the river. The surrounding area may also be producing faecal pollution into the stream. The animal faeces in the nearby forest is responsible for the intestinal coli in the stream which are very high. Generally the water quality in Bevern stream is good and favorable for aquatic biodiversity as the level of Dissolved Oxygen and the ammonia and phosphate nutrients are high. The E. coli is high which is dangerous to the health of the people living around the stream. (Crompton, 2002) The faecal pollution is a major source of the waterborne diseases that affect the community living around. The sources of the faecal pollution are many and cannot be avoided unless the level of treatment for the sewage discharged in the stream is raised to better standards. The biological data shows that the stream is more polluted with the faecal wastes from both the treated sewage and the surrounding area which is also potential source of faecal pollution for the Bevern stream. The intestinal coli is a guarantee that their must be some direct disposal of feaces into the stream without treatment or there is discharge of raw sewage into the stream. This also shows that there are infected people around with the E. coli bacteria that cause Typhoid, Dysentery or Diarrhea in human beings. However it has not been proved that water shrew faeces are present in the stream. The current research that is being conducted by the Sussex Conservation Society is underway where plastic tubes are set near the water with muslin bait at one end, the shrews will enter in the tube to feed on this delicacy. If they are found then the faecal wastes will be too high which will have attracted the faecal shrews. (www.sussex-ouse.org.uk/research/index.htm) References Crompton, R. (2000). Determination of Organic Compound in Water, (New York, Mac Graw Hill) Lorna, F. and Jamie, B. (2001). Water Quality, Guidelines, Quality and Health, (London, MacMillan) Joseph, A. (2004). Waterborne Zoonoses, (London, MacMillan) Mason, F. (2002). Biology of Freshwater, (New York, Wesley) Duncan, D. and Horan, J. (2003). Water and Wastewater Microbiology, (London, Oxford University Press) Bull, T. and Marrs, L. (1998). Biotechnology for Clean Industrial Products and Processes, (London, Oxford University Press) Kavanagh, D. (2006). A Country Pillow Book, (London, Cambridge University Press) Information on the Bevern Stream also available from www.sussex.org.uk (Retrieved on 15th April, 2008)

An integral part of teaching

An integral part of teaching How and why we assess our children has a massive impact on their life in education and consequently on how and what we plan and teach, and how children learn. The National Curriculum defines assessment as an integral part of teaching and learning (1999, p.17), emphasising the value of assessing the process of learning and teaching as well as the outcome. Suggestions on a range of assessment strategies and tools are included in the curriculum but to enable teachers and schools to continue the development of good assessment practice, more detailed guidance is necessary. To begin with it is perhaps necessary to define assessment as any process used to inform teachers as to a pupils progress and learning. There are many different types of assessment, usually discussed as different purposes of assessment while these assessments certainly differ in several significant aspects; they are united in their aspirations of making a positive contribution to bringing about learning. There are two main forms of assessment; formative and summative. I have observed both types in the classroom, recognising that the key to excellent assessment practice is to understand what each form and their methods contribute. From these observations I understand that in order to become successful in my pedagogy I need to construct my teaching to maximise the success of both formative and summative assessment in my classroom. To allow me competently use both assessment for learning and assessment of learning I must develop a range and knowledge of assessment purposes and strategies which I will now discuss. Formative assessment can provide a snapshot moment by moment picture of the success of teaching and learning. It provides the two way dialogue between educator and child, the knowledge which enhances pedagogy allowing teaching to become relevant and timely. Assessment for Learning in particular will be a clear focus for me as I look for opportunities to strengthen my own teaching practice, having observed first hand the strong contribution AfL, which the National Strategies defines as a natural, integral and essential part of effective learning and teaching and is a key element of personalised learning. Teachers and children continually reflect on how learning is progressing, see where improvements can be and identify the next steps to take (2004), can make towards effective teaching. It makes the difference between self-assured and stimulated pupils, and disenfranchised pupils who are uncertain of the rationale behind the learning objective. The case for clearly communicating the learning outcome to the class is picked up on by Clarke (2006). In my own experience and observation, this results in making learning relevant especially when the learning intention is placed in the context of previous and future learning. It also helps to illuminate which areas of subject knowledge are required to teach at which time and how this information or teaching of skills is to be structured. Clarke also recommends that the teacher works with children to identify success criteria. These are used to supply feedback to both pupils and the teacher regarding the extent to which the learning objective has been met. Consequently, the use of formative assessment enriches the process of teaching, planning and curriculum development. It can inform not only the short term goals for the class, but also the negotiated curriculum, as children are encouraged to become active learners by reflecting on their own progress and motivation. It must be stressed that not all assessment needs to be quantitative, nor does it need to be recorded .The teachers own reflective process is a vital part of assessment. The purpose of summative assessment is to illustrate that pupils have met their learning goals or reached a certain standard of accomplishment. Formative assessment in basic definition is the collection and use of evidence about the learning in relation to the explicit objectives and outcomes of a lesson. This type of assessment can then be used and interpreted by the teacher to identify what the pupil has achieved, any gaps in knowledge and to decide what steps are needed to enable the pupil to reach their potential and unit outcome. I have observed formative assessment being used to inform teachers of pupil progress and to enable them to adapt their planning and teaching to their childrens needs. The aim of formative assessment is to impact positively on pupil learning and effective pedagogy. There is a growing amount of evidence suggesting that formative assessment raises both progress and attainment levels Assessment begins in this way in the Early Years Foundation stage (EYFS), where in 2003; the Foundation Stage Profile (FSP) was introduced. The FSP consists of 13 scales relating to creative development, knowledge and understanding of the world, personal, social and emotional development, physical development, language and literacy and mathematical development. Children are assessed on each scale and their progress towards achieving early learning goals is judged. During my previous experience in my base school, I have observed how a pupil profile is built up over the EYFS, so that evidence can be used formatively and later summarised against the performance descriptions of the scales for reporting at the end of each term. Through my experience of the EYFS I have seen how teacher-based this form of assessment is, as the evidence accumulated for each child is derived from on-going learning activities. This normally takes place through the use of observation sheets and post-its. Occasi onally, a more formal assessment takes place where the teacher asks the child in question if they can perform a specific task, the evidence from which is then logged and used as assessment data, however these are still situated within the normal day to day routines of the children and no cause of distress. (Q 11 12) In comparison to the FSP, the assessment children experience in Key Stages 1 and 2 varies greatly and summative assessment plays a greater role. Summative assessment is the assessment of learning and is used to record the achievements of individuals at a particular point in their learning (usually at the end of a topic, term or year). Rather than a steady trickle of specific learning goals, it refers to a broader learning outcome which has been achieved over a longer period of time. In contrast to the singular outcomes of formative assessment, summative assessments are used in several different ways, some relating to individual pupils and some to aggregated results of groups of pupils. At the end of both Y2 and Y6, children are expected to undertake external tasks and tests in mathematics and English (SATS). The results of Key Stage 2 SATS in particular are a cause of immense pressure for both pupils and teachers, as they are reported and used to inform national statistics. It is only at the end of each Key Stage that pupil attainment must be reported in terms of national curriculum levels; however there is also a statutory requirement to provide parents with a summative report once each year. Many schools choose to include within this the levels children have reached during the academic year this trend has been reinforced by the use of optional SATS for years between 2 and 6. In addition to the assessment and tracking of individual pupils, test results (KS1 and KS2 SATS) are used to evaluate the effectiveness of the education provided by teachers, schools and local authorities and compared nationally. The results of these examinations have huge implications and c onsiderable importance for teachers as the results are used to inform targets which schools must take accountability for meeting. There are established Government national targets for the percentage of children achieving a level 4 in the key stage 2 tasks which schools are required to set targets for. The consequences of not achieving these targets are severe, with schools become subject to OFSTED inspections and categories, with lack of attainment becoming the main cause of a school being placed in special measures. (Q 11 12 13) In order to avoid such consequences, teachers are facing constant pressure to ensure children are achieving age related expectations, amid fears that they will fail to hit Government targets. Children in our primary schools are in danger of being taught a limited timetable as some schools and teachers focus on teaching to the test. This is despite recommendations by OFSTED that while à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦some schools are able to prepare pupils for tests without sacrificing the wider curriculumà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦but an emphasis on the core subjects limits what pupils do, particularly as teachers prepare them for key stage 2 exams (Marley 2008) As well as placing pressure upon teachers, national testing has a huge impact on pupils. It can cause a lack of motivation for lower ability children, as well as a view of learning as product rather than process for all children. There is much attention focussed on those children who are performing just beneath age related levels, while those who are either too far above or below the target level suffering a lack of attention. For my son, and for most 10-year olds in the country, the next nine months will be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a sterile, narrow and meaningless exercise in drilling and cramming. Its nothing to do with the skills of his teacher who seems outstanding. Nor do I blame the school. Its called preparing for Key Stage 2 SATS (2006) It is clear that the emphasis has to be placed back on teaching rather than targets and tests. How then do we ensure the progress and attainment of the children in our schools without narrowing the curriculum? Assessing pupil progress (APP) has been accepted as recognising the differing purposes and audiences for assessment on both a day-to-day and periodic time scale. On a day-to-day capacity it provides a closer view of pupils, enabling teachers to support childrens learning through use of effective classroom intervention. Periodically it reviews a broader range of pupils work, which in turn can inform planning and enable teachers to monitor progress and attainment. The purpose of APP is to support effective planning; teaching and learning, The use of informed and consistent target setting will continue to play a crucial part in ensuring that teachers know what to teach to allow children to achieve their aims by guiding and challenging them. In my base school APP is used to support this aim, ensuring that targets are both appropriate and relevant to individuals. Similarly APP can be used to identify gaps in a pupils learning, allowing teachers to reflect upon their own teaching, especial ly in those cases where there are common mistakes and misconceptions on the part of the pupils. APP also reinforces Assessment for Learning (AfL) as a daily occurrence, leading to a more constructive impact on teaching and learning. In national guidance there is an increasing emphasis on the role of APP in tracking and recording performance. Whilst most schools recognise the opportunities to increase their teacher assessments consistency and reliability, it will take time for APP to become second nature to staff. However, the overarching aim of APP is clear it aims to enable us to recognize and celebrate overall progress in an aspect of learning, rather than just assessing learning of the most recently taught and learned. (Q 12 13 26a) As well as internal methods of assessment, schools have access to national and local data in forms of the raiseonline and national and local benchmarking data. This enables schools to pinpoint how well they are doing and any improvements they could and should make. Schools can make comparisons, not only on a national level but also against schools with similar levels of deprivation (eligibility for free school meals) or schools with similar levels of contextual value added. Supporting all schools improvement processes by providing a variety of methods to analyse their performance data as part of the self evaluation form (SEF). It is necessary however to interpret benchmarking data with care as rather than providing schools with the answers it is more likely that it would help them identify questions and issues that may need to be investigated. Whilst comparing data between schools may give accurate portrayals of a schools performance, it does not necessarily account for it. (Q 13) It is my opinion, after research and school based observations, that a successful assessment is an open one, where everyone involved, from staff to pupils are aware to some extent of what and how evidence is to be assessed. It is essential that we are completely transparent about the need for and purpose of assessment and why it is carried out in particular ways. Feedback to pupils is key in formative assessment, as it is only by showing pupils the steps they need to take in order to reach the next steps in their learning that we as teachers can bring about learning. While we cannot learn for the students, we can use feedback to make adjustments to our planning and teaching, enabling students to access the curriculum with all the tools they require. Even the very youngest pupils can be given some explanation of the assessment process, which in turns enables children to both self and peer assess. Self and peer assessment includes pupil involvement in both setting the success criteria and how they will show that they have been successful, empowering them to take control of their own learning. There are huge advantages to this type of assessment, the most significant of which are that it develops lifelong evaluation skills whilst supporting independent learning increases pupil motivation by involving them in the assessment process treats assessment as part of learning, so mistakes are seen as opportunities rather than a sign of failure. reduces the amount of teacher assessment but improves the quality. In my base school I have observed a number of self and peer assessment strategies including children marking each others work, the use of a traffic lighting system, suggesting improvements to each others work and reflecting upon their own. Of course there are possible issues surrounding the use of peer and self assessment, with many believing that it should be used only for formative assessment as it is possible that children may allow friendships to affect their objectivity. It is necessary that teachers use peer and self assessment to support their own assessment, teaching and planning rather that relying upon it completely. (Q 28) Through my reading and observations during my time in school, it has become clear to me that there is no part of interaction which is not assessed. Though this may not seem manageable, the variation of assessment strategies that I have witnessed, I have come to the realisation that assessment does not always have to have a written outcome. Instead, it suggests to me that assessment can bring about conscious teaching and informed planning. My developing understanding of a range of assessment strategies including APP, self and peer assessment , AfL among others, will enable me to use day-to-day assessment to provide the pupils in my care with instant feedback, relevant next steps, appropriate support and individual targets, allowing me to adjust my planning in line with the needs of those in my care. (Q 26a, 12, 13, 19) Although I believe that some form of summative assessment is necessary in schools, I believe that on many occasions grades, marks and levels are assigned to pupils work more often than strictly necessary when it may be more appropriate to provide formative feedback. This is something I intend to avoid in my own practice, especially as I have experienced the use of excellent formative assessment in my base school. I have found that feedback given in this way to inform a target is highly effective in motivating pupils, and goes some way towards personalising learning. Furthermore it builds confidence and the long-term aim of helping children to become independent learners. It is essential then, to ensure good teaching and learning, that assessment involves a great deal more than just testing. It should be a continuing process that encompasses many activities, both formal and informal, designed to monitor and improve teaching and in turn the bringing about of learning across all areas o f the curriculum.(Q22, 25a) Teaching will inevitably be focused on what s assessed. When conducted by testing this impact is bound to have a narrowing effect on what is taught because tests only sample the learning outcomes and include those outcomes more easily assessed by tests. If teachers use a much wider range of assessment methods, the result can be much more positive.

Germination of Seeds: Research on Salinity

Germination of Seeds: Research on Salinity 1.1. Rationale The purpose of this investigation is to develop a more advanced understanding of the germination of seeds. The investigation is worthwhile as it will explain such conditions needed for seeds to maximise germination to allow efficient plant development. This information could help the scientific community know when saline reaches dangerous levels for radish seeds. 1.2. Background Information The aim of this experiment is to find out how the salinity of water affects the optimum germination of seeds. A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food (Seed, 2016). There are mainly two types of seeds: monocots and dicots. The cotyledon in monocots are just thin leaves that usually do not emerge above ground. Dicot cotyledons contain their seeds endosperm, so they are thicker and fuller, which they use to produce more food in photosynthetic metabolism (Burchill, 2017). In dicots, the primary root first grows upward to the surface and then dives again, while the primary root in monocots grows downward. For germination to occur, the seed requires an adequate environmental temperature, light exposure and a regular intake of water (Burchill, 2017). Germination starts when the seed starts to take up water by osmosis, which is the movement of water through a permeable membrane from higher water concentration to a lower water concentration (BBC Standard Grade Bitesize Biology Cells and diffusion : Revision, Page 4, 2014).   Ã‚   The micropyle, an opening in the testa, or seed coat, allows water to move into the seed causing it to swell and thus rupture the seed coat to allow the embryo plant to emerge (Gillam, 2014). Permeability of the testa is a major factor controlling the rate of water uptake. As seeds imbibe- absorb- water, they expand and enzymes and food supplies become hydrated. Hydrated enzymes become active and the seed increase its metabolic activities to produce energy for the growth process. In addition, the water causes turgor pressure to increase in the cells and they can enlarge. There are three stages to seed germination (Germination of Seeds: Stages Factors involved, 2017). The imbibition stage, where water absorption results in rupture of seed coat. The latent stage is where the imbibition of the seed coat results in the emergence of the radicle and the plumule; and is also where the cotyledons get unfolded (Process of Seed Germination | Tutorvista.com, 2017). Finally, the exponential growth stage is where the cotyledons are expanded which are the true leaves. Factors such as oxygen, light, temperature, humidity and soil chemistry can all affect the germination of seeds (M. Krempels, 2017). The factor that will be studied, will be water salinity. Therefore, the independent variable in this investigation will be the salinity concentration (%) as the growth will be recorded based on different concentration, and the dependent variable will be the amount of germination (cm). 1.3. Hypothesis If the concentration of salinity in water (%) is increased, then the less likely/ more time it will take for the seed to germinate. 2.0. Procedure/ Method 4 radish seeds were each placed into a cotton ball which were in 12 petri dishes. On the first day, 15 mL of distilled water was measured and poured in 3 petri dishes, while 1%, 5% and 10% sodium chloride solution was measured and poured each into the remaining petri dishes. However, on the other 4 days, 5 mL of each solution was measured and emptied into the corresponding petri dishes. A photo was taken each day for 5 days and observations were recorded. 3.1. Presentation of Data Percentage of Radish Seeds that Germinated with Varying Solute Percentages Radish seeds that germinated (%) Concentration of NaCl (%) Day 0 Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 0 0 50 66.67 66.67 66.67 1 0 8.33 16.67 16.67 25 5 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 3.2. Interpretation of Data In graph 1, the pattern of the 0% NaCl trend line shows an increase in the percentage of seeds germinating in the first two days, but then slowed down and levelled off until day 4. Similarly, the trendline of 1% NaCl saw an increase in the percentage of seeds germinating until day 2 where it levelled off, however after day 3 a steady increase in the amount of seeds germinating can be seen. In graph 2, the maximum amount of seeds that germinated, 66.67%, is at the optimum salinity for germination to occur in seeds, 0%. As the salinity increased from this optimum concentration, the percentage of seeds that germinated decreases. This can be seen at 1% NaCl because the percentage of seeds that germinated was 25%, and when the concentration was 5% and 10% as the amount of germinated seeds was only 0%. The seeds germinated the most when the salinity of the water was 0% because the average rate of germination in the first two days was 33.34%/day and the maximum percentage that germinated was 66.67%. As compared to: 1% NaCl, where the average rate of germination was 8.34%/day and the maximum amount of seeds that germinated was just 25%; and 5%/ 10% NaCl, where no germination took place. In conclusion, both graphs show that around 0% is the optimum concentration for radish seeds to germinate. In addition, any changes above this concentration decrease the rate of germination. 4.1. Explanation of Results If the concentration of salinity in water (%) is increased, then the less likely/ more time it will take for the seed to germinate. It was predicted that the optimum percentage of NaCl would be 0% and there would be a steady decrease as the salinity increased. When the salinity of the water increases from 0%, the rate of germination decreased which is shown in the results as at 0% NaCl 66.67% of seeds had germinated after 4 days, at 1% NaCl 25% of seeds had germinated, and at 5% and 10% NaCl, 0% of seeds germinated. Optimal germination for most seeds has been reported in non-saline conditions (AoB Plants, 2014). The rate of imbibition decreases with increasing the concentration of a solution in the medium (Monga, 2014). Imbibition is important in seed germination as it involves the uptake of water by the dry seed, initially by osmosis. The water hydrates and activates special proteins, called enzymes, that increase its metabolic activities producing energy that begin the process of seed growth such as starch conversion into sugar (Robb, 2017). In addition, the water causes turgor pressure to increase in the cells so they can enlarge and move the radicle root down and the cotyledons up (Khon, 2017). Turgor pressure is the force of water pushing the plasma membrane against the cell wall of a plant cell (eHowEducation, 2014). Although Imbibition uses aspects from the process of osmosis, imbibition and osmosis are not the same. The uptake of absorption of water by the solid substance without forming solution is called imbibition. Whereas, the movement of water molecules through a semipermeable m embrane from the region of higher water concentration to the region of lesser water concentration is called osmosis (Deena T Kochunni, 2017). In the data, as the concentration increased from 0%, the rate of reaction decreased. The order of concentrations at which the rate of germination will increase from slowest to fastest is 10% NaCl, 5% NaCl, 1% NaCl and 0% NaCl. Therefore, the predicted outcome that the optimum salinity would be 0% was correct as this is what the experiment indicates, which was 0%. This is because seeds need a lower concentration of salinity in their environment, i.e. the soil, so that more water can flow into seed to get imbibed. A University of California study undertaken by Stephan Grattan, plant-water relations specialist, determined that radishes do not tolerate much salt in irrigation water (Grattan, 2002). As radish seeds are sensitive to root disturbances, the salinity of the water affected the rate of germination (How to Grow Radishes 101 gardenswag, 2011). This would suggest why 25% of seeds germinated after five days in an environment containing 1% NaCl, but 0% of seeds germinating in 5% Na Cl and 10% NaCl. When a seeds environment is of the optimal concentration of NaCl, the rate of germination is at its highest and so takes a shorter amount of time. Therefore, at this optimum, the concentration gradient of water is highest which means that maximum imbibition takes place, causing the cells to swell and activate the enzymes which help break down the seed coating. This can be seen at point B on graph 2 where the radish seeds are at the optimum concentration of 0% NaCl and a maximum of 66.67% of seeds germinated. Concentrations above the optimum affect the osmotic process in seeds. Seed imbibition rate and germination percentage decrease as the surrounding water concentration decreases. This is because, increasing the salinity decreases the concentration of water in the external environment of the seed, making the water in the seed cells travel out into the external environment, plasmolysing the cells. When a plant cell becomes plasmolysed, the internal cellular membrane shrivels up as the volume of water in the cytoplasm decreases, which means that there is less turgor pressure (The Effects of Osmosis, 2017). Therefore, it wont germinate. This is also apparent at point B on graph 2, as there is a decrease in the percentage of germinating seeds at salinity percentages above 0%. At 0% NaCl, it is evident that the most seeds, 66.67%, had germinated by the end of day 4. This was where the concentration of water outside the seed was at its highest resulting in the most amount of water travelling into the seed at a time. In other words, the seed was in a hypotonic environment. Thus, the seeds could germinate quicker as more enzymes could become active and carry out the processes important to break the walls of the seeds. This is evident in Graph 1, as at 0% NaCl 50% of the seeds had started to germinate, which is the highest of any salinity percentage on day one. The maximum percentage of seeds germinating was 66.67%. Germination could also be seen at 1% NaCl, with 25% of the seeds germinating by the end of day four. This occurred as the water concentration on the outside was the same as the water concentration on the inside of the seed cells. Therefore, the seed was in an isotonic solution. Due to this, water was still able to come into the seed cells, however, there was less turgor pressure as the seeds cells were flaccid. Germination was still able to occur as some enzymes could become stimulated to aid in breaking the seed coating. This is apparent on graph 1 as on day 3 16.67% of the seeds had germinated, but at the end of day 4, 25% of the radish seeds germinated, suggesting that germination was still taking place in the other 75% of seeds. However, no obvious germination could be seen in 5% NaCl or 10% NaCl, even after the fourth day. The reason for this, is that the percentage of salinity was too much in the external environment, which means that the concentration of water in the external environment was lower than the water concentration inside the seeds cells- in a hypertonic environment. Consequently, more water was going out of the seeds cells than water was coming out, therefore the cells plasmolysed. The lack of water inside the cells could not activate enough enzymes to continue the process of germination. This is clear on graph 1 as 0% of seeds germinated throughout the 4 days. Per the results, it can be verified that as the salinity increased from 0%, the imbibition of the seed decreased causing the rate of germination to decrease. This increase in salinity caused the concentration of water outside the seed to increase, causing a hypertonic solution, which consequently made more water travel out of the cells than into, causing the cells to plasmolyse. Thus, decreasing the rate of germination. 4.2. Evaluation of Experiment To ensure that an experiment is a fair test, only one factor can be changed at a time while keeping all other conditions the same (Doing a Fair Test: Variables for Beginners, 2016). This experiment had several control variables that had to be kept constant, variables such as: the temperature of room; the type of seed; the amount of solution used; time of day watered; vessel that carries the seed; how seeds are placed; amount of seeds placed in each petri-dish; and the light reaching plants. The external environment was kept constant as the experiment was conducted indoors with the air conditioner set to 22 °C and the seeds were placed in the same place on a window sill. Also, the type of seed was kept the same as radish seeds were used. In addition, vessel that carried the seeds, amount of seeds in each petri dish and how seeds were placed were all kept constant as four seeds were placed in four cotton balls in each petri dish. However, the amount of solution was not kept constant each day, as 15mL was used to water the seeds on day 1, but on the second and third days 5mL was used, and no watering took place on days 4 and 5. To improve this, the original 15mL of water should be used to water the seeds every day. Even though the environment was kept constant, to maximise seed germination, the investigation needed to take place inside of a greenhouse. In addition, the time of day was not kept constant, to ensure that the watering was at the same time every day, the radishes needed to be watered at around 5 oclock every morning so that the seeds could maximise sunlight throughout the rest of the day. Validity encompasses the entire experimental concept and establishes whether the results obtained meet all of the requirements of the scientific research method (Shuttleworth, 2008). Possible errors in the results include: human error in reading measurements; not watering the seeds evenly; human error in remembering to water the seeds; and not using the same amount of cotton wool. The main reasons for this was the lack of time during a school day. In addition, there was no real way to measure out each cotton wool ball. Therefore, the results are valid for this experiment, but are not reliable to use for further research into radish seeds. The aim of this experiment was to find out how the salinity of water affects the optimum germination in radish seeds. The predicted outcome that the optimum temperature would be 0% was correct as this is what the experiment indicates. Per the results, it can be verified that as the concentration of salinity increased from 0%, the water moving into the seed decreased causing the rate of germination to also decrease eventually causing 0% of seeds to germinate in 4 days, at which the water moving into the seed was less than the amount of water moving out of the seed. Any increase in salinity concentration decreased the number of enzymes being activated to start breaking the seed coating due to the lack of water inside the seeds cells, causing the seeds to not germinate by the end of day 4. Theory Sources AoB Plants. (2014) (6th ed.). BBC Standard Grade Bitesize Biology Cells and diffusion : Revision, Page 4. (2014). Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 6 February 2017, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/standard/biology/investigating_cells/cells_and_diffusion/revision/4/ Burchill, S. (2017). The Open Door Web Site : Energy and Activity : How Plants Survive Winter : Seeds and the Conditions Needed for Seed germination. Saburchill.com. Retrieved 28 January 2017, from http://www.saburchill.com/ans02/chapters/chap036.html Deena T Kochunni, J. (2017). Difference between Osmosis and Imbibition.Majordifferences.com. Retrieved 25 February 2017, from http://www.majordifferences.com/2013/12/difference-between-osmosis-and.html#.WLGCpPk2vIU eHowEducation,. (2014). What Is Turgor Pressure in Biology? : Biology DNA. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ckKRfhD5sE0 Doing a Fair Test: Variables for Beginners. (2016). Science Buddies. Retrieved 13 May 2016, from http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_experiment_fair_test.shtml Germination of Seeds: Stages Factors involved. (2017). Education Science Tips. Retrieved 6 February 2017, from http://www.rajaha.com/germination-seeds/ Gillam, P. (2014). osmosis | PMG Biology. Pmgbiology.com. Retrieved 6 February 2017, from https://pmgbiology.com/tag/osmosis/ M. Krempels, D. (2017). GR 1 Laboratory: Environment and Development: The Effects of Environment on Seed Germination. Laboratory Exercise, Miami. Grattan, S. (2002). Irrigation Water Salinity and Crop Production (1st ed.). Oakland: ANR Publication. Retrieved from http://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/8066.pdf How to Grow Radishes 101 gardenswag. (2011). Gardenswag.com. Retrieved 27 January 2017, from http://www.gardenswag.com/2011/12/how-to-grow-radishes-101/ Khon, C. (2017). Seed Germination [10]. Retrieved from http://www.shsu.edu/academics/agricultural-sciences-and-engineering-technology/ Monga, S. (2014) Imbibition [4]. Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/sheelumonga/imbibition-is-the-phenomenon-of-adsorption-of-water Process of Seed Germination | Tutorvista.com. (2017). Tutorvista.com. Retrieved 6 February 2017, from http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/plant-growth-movements/seed-germination-process.php Robb, A. (2017). What is Seed Germination? Definition, Process, Steps Factors Video Lesson Transcript | Study.com. Study.com. Retrieved 24 February 2017, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-seed-germination-definition-process-steps-factors.htmlp Seed. (2016). ScienceDaily. Retrieved 19 February 2017, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/seed.htm Shuttleworth, M. (2008). Validity and Reliability How to Know if the Research is Correct?.Explorable.com. Retrieved 13 May 2016, from https://explorable.com/validity-and-reliability The Effects of Osmosis. (2017). Etomica.org. Retrieved 6 February 2017, from http://www.etomica.org/app/modules/sites/Osmosis_old/Background1.html Diagram Sources Biology 1903,. (2017). Eudicot germination.. Retrieved from http://bio1903.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch38/38_10SeedGermination-dicot.jpg EdExcel,. (2014). There is an opening in the testa called the micropyle that allows water to move into the seed causing it to swell and thus rupture the seed coat to allow the embryo plant to emerge.. Retrieved from https://pmgbiology.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/image024.gif imgarcade.com,. (2017). osmosis 1. Retrieved from https://image.slidesharecdn.com/osmosisamazingss-111004150133-phpapp01/95/osmosis-1-8-728.jpg Pearson Education Inc.,. (2017). Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic Solutions. Retrieved from http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/biomembrane1/images/Tonic2.gif University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Gorgan,. (2012). Effect of NaCl concentration on germination of Velvetleaf (A) and Bamyardgrass (B). Retrieved from http://www.scielo.br/img/revistas/pd/v28n3/02f03.gif

Devastating Effects of the Oleoducto de Crudos Pesados Essay -- Ecuado

Devastating Effects of the Oleoducto de Crudos Pesados Although relatively small in size, Ecuador is one of the most biologically diverse nations in the world. A drastic range of altitude and geographical diversity in such a small area has resulted in a high number of diverse climactic regions. Because of their very different climates and altitudes, Ecuador’s four main regions, the lowland Pacific Coast, the Andes Mountains, the Amazon rainforest, and the Galapagos Islands, are each home to a wide variety of plant and animal species. These many distinct ecosystems and the hundreds of endemic species residing within Ecuador’s borders have led scientists to classify it as a biodiversity â€Å"hotspot†. Ecuador’s rich biodiversity and natural beauty have been key factors in the success of the nation’s ecotourism industry. Tourists from around the world are drawn to Ecuador by the opportunity to see plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Birdwatchers are especially interested in the lo wer elevations of the Andes, commonly known as the cloud forest, which are home to an extremely high number of endemic bird species. Unfortunately, many of Ecuador’s unique ecosystems are under threat from deforestation and other anthropogenic forces. The oil industry in Ecuador has historically been, and continues to be, one of the worst offenders of environmental degradation. Despite this, the Ecuadorian government, under the strong influence of the World Bank and IMF (International Monetary Fund), has encouraged the development of Ecuador’s oil reserves, as opposed to other more sustainable forms of economic growth, in an attempt to rescue the nation’s struggling economy. The Amazon rainforest, where virtually all of Ecuador’s oil re... ...curb the devastating effects certain types of economic development continue to have on their fragile ecosystems. In order to attract foreign capital to these nations, international organizations like the IMF and World Bank have consistently encouraged the development of extractive industries like oil, which virtually without fail result in massive environmental degradation. Finding alternative ways of economic development that encourage environmental conservation and responsible resource use is crucial to the survival of Ecuador’s unique ecosystems and endemic species. Sources â€Å"The New Heavy Crude Pipeline in Ecuador.† Amazon Watch Mega-Project Alert. June 2001 High Paramo Ecosystem of the Andes. 10 December 2004

James Joyces Araby - Setting in Araby Essay -- Joyce Dubliners Araby

Setting in James Joyce's Araby  Ã‚   In the opening paragraphs of James Joyce's short story, "Araby," the setting takes center stage to the narrator. Joyce tends carefully to the exquisite detail of personifying his setting, so that the narrator's emotions may be enhanced. To create a genuine sense of mood, and reality, Joyce uses many techniques such as first person narration, style of prose, imagery, and most of all setting. The setting of a short story is vital to the development of character. In the opening paragraph, North Richmond Street is introduced as "blind," and "quiet", yet on it rests another house which is unoccupied. The narrator states that the house is, "Detached," from the others on the street, but that, "The other houses on the street, conscious of decent lives within them, gazed at one another with brown imperturbable faces" (379). This creates an image of isolation, and uncertainty, for the one uninhabited house. The image of the lone house, lays in the shadows of the crowd of other houses who stand so remarkably calm, and collected. This enhances the image of the adolescent narrator, and perhaps foreshadows, his blind inclination towards self discovery on the road of life. The image also evokes that of the uncomfortable affect a group of peers may cast upon the isolated teen. Will steady doses of rejection and alienation drive the narrator to darker days ahead? He lives with his aunt and uncle, and there is no mention of his real parents. Whether he was abandoned, unwanted, or orphaned remains a mystery. In fact it may be that the narrator simply has no outlet through which to exercise his fragile emotions and thoughts. He has friends, but none to any degree of intimacy, his playful innocence pron... ...y perception of the reader, with the placement of the physical aspects conveying double meaning. Briefly foreshadowed, the religiousness with which he experiences his boyhood fancy, has all but abandoned and betrayed him. He recognizes the, "...silence like that which pervades a church after a service" (382). The bazaar has been emptied all the life within in it and become a cold inhospitable environment. The narrator is left again in his isolation in the middle of the bazaar, failed and dejected. He states, "Gazing up into the darkness I saw myself as a creature driven and derided by vanity; and my eyes burned with anguish and anger" (383). Perhaps it is life itself that is the religious experience worth living for, but one evolving from the inner spirit of the self in a great moment of epiphany. Works Cited: Joyce, James. â€Å"Araby†. Kirszner and Mandell 226. James Joyce's Araby - Setting in Araby Essay -- Joyce Dubliners Araby Setting in James Joyce's Araby  Ã‚   In the opening paragraphs of James Joyce's short story, "Araby," the setting takes center stage to the narrator. Joyce tends carefully to the exquisite detail of personifying his setting, so that the narrator's emotions may be enhanced. To create a genuine sense of mood, and reality, Joyce uses many techniques such as first person narration, style of prose, imagery, and most of all setting. The setting of a short story is vital to the development of character. In the opening paragraph, North Richmond Street is introduced as "blind," and "quiet", yet on it rests another house which is unoccupied. The narrator states that the house is, "Detached," from the others on the street, but that, "The other houses on the street, conscious of decent lives within them, gazed at one another with brown imperturbable faces" (379). This creates an image of isolation, and uncertainty, for the one uninhabited house. The image of the lone house, lays in the shadows of the crowd of other houses who stand so remarkably calm, and collected. This enhances the image of the adolescent narrator, and perhaps foreshadows, his blind inclination towards self discovery on the road of life. The image also evokes that of the uncomfortable affect a group of peers may cast upon the isolated teen. Will steady doses of rejection and alienation drive the narrator to darker days ahead? He lives with his aunt and uncle, and there is no mention of his real parents. Whether he was abandoned, unwanted, or orphaned remains a mystery. In fact it may be that the narrator simply has no outlet through which to exercise his fragile emotions and thoughts. He has friends, but none to any degree of intimacy, his playful innocence pron... ...y perception of the reader, with the placement of the physical aspects conveying double meaning. Briefly foreshadowed, the religiousness with which he experiences his boyhood fancy, has all but abandoned and betrayed him. He recognizes the, "...silence like that which pervades a church after a service" (382). The bazaar has been emptied all the life within in it and become a cold inhospitable environment. The narrator is left again in his isolation in the middle of the bazaar, failed and dejected. He states, "Gazing up into the darkness I saw myself as a creature driven and derided by vanity; and my eyes burned with anguish and anger" (383). Perhaps it is life itself that is the religious experience worth living for, but one evolving from the inner spirit of the self in a great moment of epiphany. Works Cited: Joyce, James. â€Å"Araby†. Kirszner and Mandell 226.

The Cheating Hearts of Men Essay -- Relationships Affairs Boyfriends E

The Cheating Hearts of Men In writing this paper, I am setting out to answer a question that has been plaguing women for many years. Why do men cheat on us? Is it something us women do that causes it? Is it something they are taught is ok somewhere along the way? Does it have to do with the fact that their genitalia are on the outside? Or is there no logical explanation in the universe for it? (I’m leaning towards the last one, but hey, that’s just me.) Men always seem to have an explanation for their behavior, or more likely, an excuse. These excuses have been known to range from blaming the woman they are cheating on to trying to get back at her for something. Having more than just some personal experience with being cheated on, I’m curious to find out what causes this relationship phenomenon. More importantly, is it me? I know I have several friends who might also stand to benefit from my â€Å"research†, and hopefully by the end of this we’ll all have some answers. To start my research, I had to look no further than in the mirror. My ex-boyfriend cheated on me several times. Whenever I would suspect him, he would always have these fabulous excuses as to what he was doing and who he was with. He was a very convincing person, and he knew that. When I finally found out the truth (from the other girl I might add, which by the way guys is the worst way to find out) his first reaction was to deny it, and then when he finally admitted to it he had the balls to blame it on me. He said it was my fault because I did not pay him enough attention and the other time was because I was spending too much time with one of my male friends and then the next excuse was because I already was accusing him of it so he might as well. He might as we... ...s that I read in my search, I honestly do believe that there is just something inherent in the nature of the male species that causes them to be more likely to be unfaithful then women. I will end this paper with a little positive note for all the guys. Just to make you all feel a little better, I also learned in my research that nowadays women are almost as likely to cheat as men are. Works Cited Carey, Benedict. â€Å"Your cheating heart; Yen for variety can strain marital bonds.† Times-Picayune 25 Oct. 2003 Charles, Nick. â€Å"Why good men cheat.† Essence Jan 2003: 104-107+. Giglio, Anthony. â€Å"Would your guy cheat? Would you know?† Redbook April 2001: 108-118. Koli, Anuradha. â€Å"Why Guys Cheat on Hot Women.† Cosmopolitan Jan 2004: 106. LaFrance, Siona. â€Å"The Cheating Kind; Men’s affairs are a symptom of deeper problems.† Times-Picayune 28 Jan. 2004.

Drugs and Alcohol Essay -- American History, Alcohol

Drugs are heavily used throughout the entire world. However, it is important to understand and not undermine the variability in which drugs are used. It is clear some are for distinct medical treatment and others are for recreational use. In the United States, marijuana has been and continues to be a very controversial drug. Some states have allowed marijuana consumption for medicinal purposes, while others have completely outlawed the drug. Those who are against the legalization and regulation of marijuana suggest the economical and health risk associated with consumption of the drug are too high. Although there is risk involved with the legalization of the marijuana, our country has already been risking too much banning the drug. As a result, many police officers and American citizens lives are at risk as task force attempt to control the black market. It has limited the treatment possibilities of the ill as marijuana can be prescribed for various sicknesses (Fisher, par. 1 ). The benefits of legalizing marijuana by far out way the losses of continuing to keep it illegal. There are flaws on both ends of the spectrum, but it is clear is the regulation and legalization of marijuana will give government additional revenue through taxation, reduce spending allocated to enforcing the law, and increase the availability of medicinal treatment (Single 10:457). Looking back on American history, alcohol at one point in time was against the law. Overtime it became legal and thoroughly regulated by the government. As this took place, our nation has witnessed the dangers and health issues arising from alcohol consumption and abuse. For example, drunk driving kills many Americans each year. In comparison to marijuana studies w... ...ijuana 40:478). There are many positive effects marijuana regulation can have on an economy; people need to be open minded enough to at least acknowledge them. In conclusion, it seems as if for various reasons marijuana has gained a negative image in America today. Whether this is because the smoke, physical effects, or criminalist view of the drug, it does not matter. Americans must accept the facts instead of seemingly taking them with a grain of salt. If anything, the failure to legalize marijuana and attempt to prohibit usage has caused more human suffering than simply legalizing marijuana. Additionally, the actual regulation of the drug would help stimulate the economy and eliminate crime. Americans must choose, and by the facts, it is only a matter of time before people recognize and accept the legalization and regulation of marijuana in America.